| Somali |
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| Somali Cultural Profile |
Somalia is a long, narrow country that wraps around the Horn of Africa. It has the longest coast of any African nation, bordering on both the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. The inland areas are predominantly plateaus, with the exception of some rugged mountains in the far north. The northern region is more arid, whereas the southern portion of the country receives more rainfall. Many Somalis are nomadic or semi-nomadic herders, some are fishermen, and some farmers. Mogadishu is the capital and largest city.
Unlike many African nations, Somalia is composed of a single, homogeneous ethnic group. Although Somalis may differ in nuances of local lifestyle, they share a uniform language, religion, and culture, and trace their heritage to a common ancestor.
Colonial rule began in the mid 1800s and divided the land inhabited by ethnic Somalis into several territories. The French controlled the northernmost region (the area that is now Djibouti), the British colonized northern Somalia creating a country called British Somaliland, the Italians governed southern Somalia, creating Italian Somaliland, Ethiopia controlled the inland region of the Ogaden, and Kenya controlled land on its northern border inhabited by Somalis, called the Northern Frontier District (NFD). In 1960 British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland peacefully obtained independence and were united to form the current borders of Somalia. The Ogaden, controlled by the British after World War II, was designated as part of Ethiopia in a U.N. mediated agreement in 1948. This has been a source of heated contention between the Somali and Ethiopian governments ever since. Twice, in 1964 and again in 1977, military conflict arose between the two countries over control of the Ogaden, resulting in many lost lives on both sides. The land is currently controlled by Ethiopia, though many Somalis believe the region should be reunited with Somalia.
In 1977 Djibouti received independence from the French. Although the government of Djibouti chose not to reunite with Somalia, ties between the countries remain close, as the citizens share a common culture and language. Travel is permitted freely across the border without a visa.
At the time of independence in 1960 a civilian government was established, which then allied itself with the USSR as a way to distance itself from its prior colonial rulers. In 1969, General Mohammed Siad Barre lead a coup, creating a socialist military government with himself as its President. In the early years of his government Barre enjoyed popular support, but as his regime became increasingly more oppressive, his support waned. The Barre government was accused of many human rights violations. In addition, some Somalis felt Barre was not aggressive enough about regaining the Ogaden from Ethiopia. In the late 1970s and early 1980s clan-based militias developed in order to oppose and overthrow Barre. In 1977 Barre broke ties with Moscow after the Soviets began providing aid to Ethiopia during the Ogaden War. With this realignment, the United States began supplying military and economic aid to Somalia, but eventually suspended these efforts in 1989 because of the Barre government's human rights record. Outright civil war erupted from 1988-1991, culminating in the exile of Barre in January 1991.
Since 1991, the various militias have fought against each other vying for control of the country. There has been no effective government and the infrastructure of the country has crumbled. Many civilians have suffered from rampant violence. Food supplies have been manipulated for political gain resulting in famine and death from starvation. It was estimated by the US Army that by the fall of 1992, 40% of the population of Baidoa and 25% of all Somali children under the age of five had died because of famine. In late 1992, US and UN forces intervened in Somalia to help alleviate the humanitarian crisis. By March 1994 all foreign troops had withdrawn. At the present time the country remains overwhelmed in inter-clan disputes.
In 1991 people began leaving the country to escape the hunger, rape, and death that had become widespread. Over one million people fled to neighboring countries such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti, Yemen, and Burundi. Most stayed in large refugee camps that were established to house the Somalis. Resettlement programs have enabled families to move to Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Finland, England) and the United States. Somalis in the US live predominantly in New York, Los Angeles, Washington DC, and more recently San Diego and Seattle.
The universal language in Somalia is Somali, an afroasiatic language that is closely related to Oromiffa and more distantly related to Swahili and the semitic languages of Arabic, Hebrew, and Amharic. Although written for many years, a uniform orthography was not adopted until 1973. The vast majority of the population is Moslem (>99%), and thus Arabic is a second common language. Until the 1970's, education was conducted in the language of colonial rule, thus older Somalis from northern Somalia are conversant in English and those from southern Somalia are conversant in Italian. The government sponsored literacy campaigns in the 1970s and 1980s and education was free at all levels until 1991.
Somali names have three parts. The first name is the given name, and is specific to an individual. The second name is the name of the child's father, and the third name is the name of the child's paternal grandfather. Thus siblings, both male and female, will share the same second and third names. Women, when they marry, do not change their names. By keeping the name of their father and grandfather, they are, in effect, maintaining their affiliation with their clan of birth.
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Many social norms are derived from Islamic tradition, and thus may be similiar to other Islamic countries. The common way to greet someone is to say salam alechem (roughly translated as "God bless you") and to shake their hand. Due to Islamic tradition, men and women do not touch each other. Thus men shake the hands of other men, and women shake each other's hands. When departing, the common phrase is nabad gelyo ("goodbye"). Respect is paid to the elders of the community. Elders are addressed as "aunt" or "uncle," even if they are strangers.
The right hand is considered the clean and polite hand to use for daily tasks such as eating, writing, and greeting people. If a child begins to show left-handed preference, the parents will actively try to train him or her to use the right hand. Thus left-handedness is very uncommon in Somalia.
As proscribed by Moslem tradition, married women are expected to cover their bodies including their hair. In Somalia, some Somali women wear veils to cover their faces, but few do in the U.S. as they find this a difficult custom to adhere to in American society. Pants are not a generally accepted form of attire for women, but may be worn under a skirt.
The traditional womens dress is called a hejab, and the traditional clothing for a man is called a maawis. The snug-fitting hat that men wear is a qofe.
Marriages can either be arranged or be a result of personal choice. The common age of marriage is around 14 or 15 years old. Men who can afford to do so, may have up to 4 wives, as is customary in Islamic tradition. However, not all wealthy men exercise this option. In urban areas, a man with multiple wives provides separate homes for his different families. Whether these families interact or not depends on the preference of the individuals involved. In rural areas, it is more common for a man with more than one wife to have a single household, where the families care for the farm or livestock together.
As in many Islamic cultures, adult men and women are separated in most spheres of life. Although some women in the cities hold jobs, the preferred role is for the husband to work and the wife to stay at home with the children. Female and male children participate in the same educational programs and literacy among women is relatively high.
There are several main clans in Somalia and many, many subclans. In certain regions of the country a single subclan will predominate, but as the Somalis are largely nomadic, it is more common for several subclans to live intermixed in a given area. Membership in a clan is determined by paternal lineage. Marriage between clans is common. When a woman marries a man of another clan, she becomes a member of that clan, though retains connection with her family and it's clan.
Living with extended families is the norm. Young adults who move to the city to go to school live with relatives rather than live alone. Similarly, people who do not marry tend to live with their extended families. Divorce does occur, though proceedings must be initiated by the husband.
Childbearing usually commences shortly after marriage. A woman's status is enhanced the more children she bears. Thus is not unusual for a Somali family to have seven or eight children. The concept of planning when to have or not to have children has little cultural relevance for Somalis.
Expectant and newly-delivered mothers benefit from a strong network of women within Somali culture. Before a birth, the community women hold a party (somewhat like a baby shower) for the pregnant woman as a sign of support. Births most frequently occur at home, and are attended by a midwife.
Newborn care includes warm water baths, sesame oil massages, and passive stretching of the baby's limbs. An herb called malmal is applied to the umbilicus for the first 7 days of life (malmal is available in the U.S. in some Asian markets).
When a child is born, the new mother and baby stay indoors at home for 40 days, a time period known as afatanbah. Female relatives and friends visit the family and help take care of them. This includes preparing special foods such as soup, porridge, and special teas. During afatanbah, the mother wears earrings made from string placed through a clove of garlic, and the baby wears a bracelet made from string and malmal (an herb) in order to ward away the Evil Eye (see Traditional Health Practices below). Incense (myrrh) is burned twice a day in order to protect the baby from the ordinary smells of the world, which are felt to have the potential to make him or her sick. At the end of the 40 days there is a celebration at the home of a friend or relative. This marks the first time the mother or baby has left the home since the delivery. There is also a naming ceremony for the child. In some families this occurs within the first 2-3 weeks of the baby's life, in other families, the naming ceremony is held at the same time as the celebration at the end of afatanbah. These ceremonies are big family gatherings with lots of food, accompanied by the ritual killing of a goat and prayers.
Breastfeeding is the primary form of infant nutrition. It is common to breastfeed a child until 2 years of age. Supplementation with animal milks (camel, goat, cow) early in the neonatal period is common. This is especially true during the first few days of life, as colostrum is considered unhealthy. Camel's milk is considered to be the most nutritious of animal milks. A few Somalis use bottles, but more commonly, infants, including newborns are offered liquids in a cup. A mixture of rice and cow's milk is introduced at about 6 months of age, and subsequent solid foods after that. Most Somali women are uncomfortable with the Western idea of pumping breastmilk. They believe that human milk shouldn't be stored because it will go bad.
Diapering is not common in Somalia. When the baby is awake, the mother will hold a small basin in her lap and then hold her baby in a sitting position over the basin at regular time intervals. Somali mothers claim that within a short period of time infants are trained to use the "potty." At nighttime, a piece of plastic is placed between the mattress and the bedding. The bedding and plastic are cleaned daily.
Breastfeeding is the predominant form of nutrition for children under the age of 2 years. Southern Somalia has a large agricultural and international trading component to its economy, thus, in southern Somalia diets are richer in green vegetables, corn, and beans. Southern Somalis, especially those in the cities are more familiar with Western foods such as pasta and canned goods. Northern Somalia's nomadic lifestyle fosters a diet that is heavier in milk and meat. Diets there also have a large component of rice, which is obtained through trade.
For beverages, there are black and brown teas (largely imported from China) and a coffee drink that is made from the covering of the coffee beans rather than from the beans themselves.
See related:
Qat,(also spelled khat, chat, kat) is a mild stimulant used by some Somali's. It is derived from fresh leaves from the catha edulis tree. When the leaves are chewed, the active stimulant ingredient, cathinone, is released. Qat is felt to make ones thoughts sharper and is often used in conjunction with studying. It is only used by men, and it's use is more common in Northern Somalia and the Ogaden. Qat historically has been listed by the DEA as a schedule IV drug (unrestricted), however recently it was changed to a schedule I drug (most restricted) due to concerns for potential abuse.
Almost all Somalis are Sunni Moslems. For those who practice Islam, religion has a much more comprehensive role in life than is typical in the Americas or Europe. Islam is a belief system, a culture, a structure for government, and a way of life. Thus in Somalia, attitudes, social customs, and gender roles are primarily based on Islamic tradition. For example, the Islamic calendar is based on the lunar month and begins numbering from the year Mohammed arrived in Medina; both this and the Julian calendar are officially recognized and used.
Islamic theology and religious practice is complex, and is the object of intense study and scholarship within the Islamic community. When Moslems try to convey the fundamental aspects of their religious beliefs to non-Moslems, they emphasize the belief in one God, Allah, and dedication to the study of the teachings of Allah's prophets. The prophet Mohammed is central among these, though other respected prophets include the Biblical patriarch Abraham and Jesus. Moslems are quick to point out that while Mohammed is revered and his teachings form the core of Islamic thought and practice, he is not worshipped as God in the way that Christians worship Jesus.
Important religious holidays include Ramadan, Id al-Fitr, Id Arafa, and Moulid. Ramadan is the 9th month of the lunar calendar. During the 30 days of the holiday, people pray, fast and refrain from drinking during the day and eat only at night. An important aspect of this holiday for medical providers to be aware of, is that medications will often be taken only at nighttime. Pregnant women, people who are very ill, and children (usually interpreted as under 14 years old) are exempted from the fast. Some religious observance of Ramadan extends the fast for an additional 7 days.
Immediately following Ramadan is the holiday of Id al-Fitr which marks the end of the fast. This celebration involves big family gatherings and gifts for children. Id Arafa ( also called Id al-Adhuha) is the most important holiday of the calendar year. This is the time for making pilgrimages (hajjia) to Saudi Arabia. Moulid is another important holiday, occurring in the month after Ramadan. It commemorates the birth and death of the Prophet Mohammed.
Many religious holidays involve the ritual killing of a lamb or goat. In Seattle, families travel to a farm in Sumner, Washington, where they purchase the needed animal and perform the ritual slaughter. Islamic tradition forbids eating pork or drinking alcohol.
Somalis observe several secular holidays as well, these include a Memorial Day, Labor Day, an Independence Day (July 1) commemorating the 1960 independence and unification, and Mother's Day.
When a person is terminally ill, it is considered uncaring for a physician to tell them or their family that they are dying. It is acceptable to describe the extreme seriousness of an illness. When a death is impending, a special portion of the Koran, called yasin, is read at the bedside. Following a death, a person called a sheik is called to prepare the body. A female shek cares for women, and a male sheik cares for men. The sheik cleans and perfumes the body, places it it white clothes, and says the appropriate prayers. The deceased's next of kin is responsible for digging the grave.
Birthdays are not celebrated, rather the anniversary of someone's death is commemorated.
Somali traditional medicine is practiced by "traditional doctors" who are ususally older men of the community who have learned their skills from older family members. They are especially adept at treating hepatitis, measles, mumps, chicken pox, hunch-back, facial droop, and broken bones. Modalities used include, fire-burning, herbal remedies, casting, and prayer. Fire-burning is a procedure where a stick from a special tree is heated till it glows and then applied to the skin in order to cure the illness. It is commonly used for hepatitis (identified as when the eyes, skin, and nails turn yellow and the urine turns dark), where the heated stick is applied once to each wrist and 4 times to the abdomen. It is also commonly used for malnutrition (marasmus); when the head seems to be large out of proportion with the body, the heated stick is applied to the head in order to reduce the head size. Pneumonia is treated with fire-burning, herbs, and sometimes percutaneous removal of fluid from the chest. Seizures are treated with herbs and readings from the Koran. Stomach-aches and back-aches are treated with the herb habakhedi, while rashes and sore throats are treated with a tea made from the herb dinse.
Traditional doctors are also responsible for helping to cure illnesses caused by spirits. Somalis have a concept of spirits residing within each individual. When the spirits become angry, illnesses such as fever, headache, dizziness, and weakness can result. The illness is cured by a healing ceremony designed to appease the spirits. These ceremonies involve reading the Koran, eating special foods, and burning incense. The illness is usually cured within 1 or 2 days of the ceremony.
In Somali culture there also exists the concept of the "Evil Eye." A person can give someone else an Evil Eye either purposefully or inadvertently by directing comments of praise at that person, thereby causing harm or illness to befall them. For example, one does not tell someone else that they look beautiful, because that could bring on the Evil Eye. Similarly, Somali mothers cringe when doctors tell them that their babies are big and fat, out of fear the Evil Eye will cause something bad to happen to their child. More acceptable comments are to say that the child is "healthy" or "beautiful."
Currently, there are no traditional doctors in Seattle.
Circumcision is universally practiced for both males and females. It is viewed as a rite of passage, allowing a person to become a fully accepted adult member of the community. It is commonly viewed as necessary for marriage, as uncircumcised people are seen as unclean.
Male circumcision is performed at various times between birth and 5 years of age. It is accompanied by a celebration involving prayers and the ritual slaying of a goat. It is performed either by a traditional doctor (see Traditional Medical Practices above) or by a nurse or doctor in a hospital.
Female circumcision is a practice common in equatorial Africa that is unfamiliar to many Westerners. Included under the term "female circumcision" are several different procedures in which varying amounts of genital tissue are removed. This ranges from the removal of the clitoral hood, leaving the rest of the genitalia intact (known as "sunna" circumcision), to removal of the clitoris and anterior labia minora, to removal of the clitoris, the entire labia minora, part of the labia majora, and suturing of the labia majora, leaving a posterior opening for passage of urine and menstrual flow. This latter procedure is known as infibulation, and is the most common form offemale circumcision in Somalia. In Somalia, the procedure is usually performed by female family members but is also available in some hospitals. It is usually performed between birth and 5 years of age.
In the last twenty years much attention has been focused on the medical andpsycho-social complications of female circumcision. (See references) However most Somali women view circumcision as normal, expected, and desirable. It has become the center of a debate about potentially harmful traditional cultural practices, and as such, has become a complex and emotionally charged subject. For Somali women in the United States there are many concerns about how their circumcisions will be cared for during childbirth and about whether they will be able to have their daughters circumcised. There are women in the Somali community in Seattle who are knowledgeable in how toperform infibulations, however, due to fear of legal reprisals have not performed them here. Western practitioners need to recognize that this is an important yet sensitive issue for Somali women, and strive to keep the lines of communication open in order to best serve the needs of their patients.
Most Somalis, especially those from the cities, have had at least some experience with Western-style medicine. Almost without exception, however, Somali's associate nurses, doctors, and hospitals with ill-care. The concept of using the medical system to keep people healthy, such as with routine prenatal care and well child care, is unfamiliar.
The most common illnesses taken to Western hospitals are diarrhea, fever (usually representing malaria), and vomiting. Families almost universally receive an antibiotic at the hospital, setting a precedent for expectations in the United States. Oral rehydration therapy is common and familiar. Families are aware of colds, ear infections, and asthma (called asma or nef), though these are not common conditions. Families will bring their children to the hospital for a cold and receive oral medication which is effective against the symptoms, again, setting a precedent that they expect to be followed in the U.S. In Seattle, families are often very unhappy when they travel a long distance, wait to be seen in clinic, and are sent home with instructions that the illness will self-resolve.
Parasitic illness is relatively common, especially shistosomiasis with terminal hematuria. In a recent screening study at Harborview Medical Center, 72% of East African children (inclusive of Somali and other ethnic groups) had pathogenic fecal parasites. Most common were roundworms, giardia, ameba, and hymenolepsis nana. Somalis also describe a prevalent disease where small worms crawl under the fingernails (perhaps tungiasis?).
Somalis are familiar with tuberculosis. In Somalia, if a person develops tuberculosis they are quarrantined to a special TB hospital for many months. Many Somalis were exposed to TB in the refugee camps where TB control was poor.
AIDS is a recognized but uncommon illness (<1% incidence) compared to other East African nations.
There are a number of Somali service agencies, community organizations and businsses in and around the Seattle area. For more complete information visit Somali Community Organizations and Businesses in Seattle
In the Seattle metropolitan area, the Somali community has predominantly settled in the Central Area, Rainier Beach, and in SeaTac.
There are several areas where the differences between Somali and American culture are apparent and cause difficulties. For example, American apartments are rarely large enough to accommodate families of 9 or 10 people. In practice, this means that many Somali families have been divided between 2 or more apartments. This places emotional strains on families that are often struggling financially. In addition, due to Moslem prohibitions against interactions between adult men and women, Somali women have a strong preference to work with female interpreters and health care providers.
However, thus far, Somalis in Seattle state they have not encountered significant problems associated with acculturation. As recent immigrants with a strong religious and cultural heritage, most families have found it easy to continue traditional dress and cultural practices. At those times when Somali adolescents feel the pressure to assimilate more strongly than their parents, usually a mutually acceptable compromise can be accomplished. For example, several Somali families feel comforatable letting their children go to school in Western clothes (as long as this does not include shorts), as long as the children change into Somali clothing when they come home from school. Families send their children to religious school on evenings and weekends in order to preserve Islamic education and tradition. Some attend a Pan-Islamic school at 25th Ave and Cherry. Others attend the newly created Somali Islamic school at Rainier and Brandon.
Toubia, N., "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue" NEJM , Sept 15, 1994, vol 331, no 11, p 712-716.
Some historical information obtained from the U.S. Dept. of the Army, Somali Area Handbook, Jan 1994, Dept. of Commerce, Economics, and Statistics Division's National Trade Data Bank (NTDB), CD-ROM, SuDoc, c1.88:994/1/v.